The purpose of this post is to examine the history of genetic modification in the Federation, prior to āStrange New Worldsā. Iāve tried to compile various references to genetic engineering, eugenics, cloning, and genetic resequencing within the Federation across all series, with quotes and additional context as needed. All examples are presented in real-world chronological order, to better examine how these ideas have evolved over the history of the franchise.
The first reference to eugenics I could find is in the Original Series episode, āThe Conscience of the Kingā. In that episode, they briefly described how Kodos was employing his own theories of eugenics when he enacted the massacre at Tarsus IV:
Spock: Kodos began to separate the colonists. Some would live, be rationed whatever food was left. The remainder would be immediately put to death. Apparently, he had his own theories of eugenics.
McCoy: Unfortunately, he wasnāt the first.
Spock: Perhaps not. But he was certainly among the most ruthless; to decide arbitrarily who would survive and who would not, using his own personal standards, and then to implement his decision without mercy. Children watching their parents die. Whole families destroyed. Over four thousand people. They died quickly, without pain, but they died. Relief arrived, but too late to prevent the executions.
The subject comes up again, of course, in āSpace Seedā, when Khan and his fellow prisoners are discovered:
McCoy: The Eugenics Wars.
Spock: Of course. Your attempt to improve the race through selective breeding.
A later statement from Kirk affirms the root cause of the Eugenics Wars:
Kirk: An improved breed of human. Thatās what the Eugenics War was all about.
Spock is the first to suggest that there was a fatal flaw in the engineering process:
Pock: In 1993, a group of these young supermen did seize power simultaneously in over forty nations.
Kirk: Well, they were hardly supermen. They were aggressive, arrogant. They began to battle among themselves.
Spock: Because the scientists overlooked one fact. Superior ability breeds superior ambition.
Kirk: Interesting, if true. They created a group of Alexanders, Napoleons.
Khan himself has some thoughts on his own abilities relative to the rest of humanity:
Khan: Captain, although your abilities intrigue me, you are quite honestly inferior. Mentally, physically. In fact, I am surprised how little improvement there has been in human evolution. Oh, there has been technical advancement, but, how little man himself has changed.
Little is said about genetic engineering for quite some time, until we get to The Next Generationās āUnnatural Selectionā. This one appears to be a bit of an outlier, given what we later learn about genetic enhancement, but it may be possible to reconcile it. When the Enterprise crew first meet Dr. Kingsley of the Darwin Genetic Research Station, she makes the nature of her research seem as innocuous as possible:
Kingsley: Our research here is limited to human genetics. I can assure you weāre not dealing with something that got away from us. We believe that we were infected by a supply ship that was here three days ago.
Later, she acknowledges that the children aboard the station are genetically enhanced, with an interesting caveat:
Kingsley: Our ultimate achievement. The oldest is twelve, and all are telekinetic. Watch.
Pulaski: Genetically engineered?
Kingsley: Not engineered, created. Perfect in every way. Their body structure, their musculature, their minds.
I find it very interesting that Kingsley draws this line between āengineeringā and ācreationā - this distinction seems to hold some relevance to her, but itās not explored in the episode itself. Could Federation law draw a distinction between genetic modification of living individuals and cloning?
This episode also gives us an example of a genetic medical treatment of sorts, when the transporters are modified to filter out the genetic changes Pulaski endured when she transported over to the Darwin station.
Another Next Generation episode, āUp the Long Ladderā, reveals some attitudes about cloning, specifically:
Riker: You want to clone us?
Granger: Yes.
Riker: No way, not me.
Granger: How can you possibly be harmed?>
Riker: Itās not a question of harm. One William Riker is unique, perhaps even special. But a hundred of him, a thousand of him diminishes me in ways I canāt even imagine.
Notably, when Riker and Pulaski are cloned without their knowledge or consent, Riker destroys the clones outright while they are still developing.
The episode also mentions āreplicative fading,ā a process by which errors creep into the chromosomes of clones across successive generations, until the clones are no longer viable.
In Deep Space Nineās āA Man Aloneā, Odo arrests Ibudan for murdering his own clone in an attempt to frame Odo for murder:
Odo: Killing your own clone is still murder.
Notably, Odo is likely referring to Bajoran law, not Federation law, in this case.
The Next Generationās āBloodlinesā contains an early reference to DNA resequencing, a term which will be used more frequently going forward. It is also another example of flawed genetic manipulation:
Picard: You know as well as I do, Bok, heās not my son. I know what youāve done. Miranda Vigo is his mother but I am not his father. You made it appear so because you resequenced his DNA. But your technique was flawed. He developed a neurological disorder. When my shipās Doctor investigated it, she discovered what you had done.
Later, Jason Vigo notes that he is responding well to an unspecified treatment provided by Doctor Crusher, and that the damage caused by the DNA resequencing may be completely reversed.
Federation law regarding genetic enhancements starts to come into focus in Deep Space Nineās āDoctor Bashir, I Presumeā:
OāBrien: Youāre not a fraud. I donāt care what enhancements your parents may have had done. Genetic recoding canāt give you ambition, or a personality, or compassion or any of the things that make a person truly human.
Bashir: Starfleet Medical wonāt see it that way. DNA resequencing for any reason other than repairing serious birth defects is illegal. Any genetically enhanced human being is barred from serving in Starfleet or practising medicine.
Later, Rear Admiral Bennett makes the case for these laws, echoing the sentiments of Spock in āSpace Seedā:
Bennett: Two hundred years ago we tried to improve the species through DNA resequencing, and what did we get for our trouble? The Eugenics Wars. For every Julian Bashir that can be created, thereās a Khan Singh waiting in the wings. A superhuman whose ambition and thirst for power have been enhanced along with his intellect. The law against genetic engineering provides a firewall against such men and itās my job to keep that firewall intact.
Itās interesting that ambition is something specifically cited by OāBrien that cannot be influenced by genetic resequencing, while Bennett says that it can.
In Voyagerās āThe Ravenā, the EMH uses genetic resequencing to neutralize Seven of Nineās nanoprobes. Borg nanoprobes are obviously not a birth defect, so it appears that other medical uses of resequencing are considered ethical and legal.
Deep Space Nineās āStatistical Probabilitiesā contains a number of conversations about the Federations laws surrounding genetic enhancement, and their effects.
Bashir: I did my best not to exploit my abilities.
Jack: So no one would suspect. Very clever. Iām impressed. Thatās not right. There are reasons why DNA resequencing is illegal. There are reasons why people like us are barred from serving in Starfleet. We have an advantage. Normal people canāt compete. Itās not fair.
Bashir: Maybe youāre right. Maybe I should have said something sooner.
Jack: There are rules. Donāt talk with your mouth full. Donāt open an airlock when somebodyās inside it. And donāt lie about your genetic status. No, no, no. You did, you lied. And then, when you got caught, you cut a deal with Starfleet. You got yourself off the hook.
Patrick: If youād told the truth, you could have lived with us at the Institute.
Jack: Heās right, you know. Then they would have put you away.
Bashir: They donāt put people away for being genetically engineered.
Jack: No, no, no, no they just wonāt let us do anything thatās worth doing. No, no. They are afraid that people like us are going to take over.
Bashir: It happened before. People like us did try and take over.
Jack: Oh, no, no. I knew you were going to do that. I knew you were going to trot out the Eugenics Wars.
Bashir: Iām not trotting anything out. All Iām saying is thereās a reason weāve been barred from certain professions. But that doesnāt mean we canāt be productive members of society.
Jack: Here it comes. The we can still contribute speech. No. No, no, no, no. I will not forget what was done to me. I will not be part of a society that put me away for being too smart. No, no.
Also in this episode, Bashir acknowledges that resequencing methods can be imperfect (perhaps particularly when it is forced to be done āundergroundā):
Bashir: My parents managed to find a decent doctor to perform the DNA resequencing on me. These four werenāt so lucky. They all suffered unintended side effects. By the time they were five or six, their parents were forced to come forward and admit that theyād broken the law so that their children could get treatment.
Sisko: Perhaps they waited too long.
Bashir: There was nothing the doctors at the Institute could do for them. These cases are so rare thereās no standard treatment.
Thereās also a debate about the laws and regulations surrounding resequencing. For the first time, the possibility of a āgenetic arms raceā is raised - in fact, Odo (seemingly erroneously) claims that this is why the laws were enacted:
Worf: It is not a laughing matter. If people like them are allowed to compete freely, then parents would feel pressured to have their children enhanced so that they could keep up.
Odo: Thatās precisely what prompted the ban on DNA resequencing in the first place.
Bashir: Giving them a chance to contribute doesnāt necessarily mean sanctioning what was done to them. They didnāt ask to have their DNA tampered with. They were only children. And why should they be excluded just because their parents broke the law?
Sisko: Youāre right. Itās not quite fair. But even so, it seemed like a good way to discourage genetic tampering.
OāBrien: Besides, itās not as if weāre trying to exclude them from anything. Weāre just talking about limiting what theyāre allowed to do.
Bashir: Like joining Starfleet.
Worf: Exactly.
Bashir: Are you saying that I shouldnāt be allowed to wear this uniform?
Worf: Well, you are an exception.
Bashir: An exception. I should be used to that, Iāve been one all my life. First because of the DNA resequencing, and now because Iāve been allowed to join Starfleet.
In āTears of the Prophetsā, thereās a brief scene which suggests Bashir has been providing Jadzia Dax with treatment designed to make her DNA more compatible with Worfās:
Bashir: According to the DNA scans I did this morning, the ovarian resequencing enzymes I gave you appear to be working.
Dax: You mean Worf and I can have a baby?
Bashir: It certainly looks that way. I must say, I didnāt expect such positive results so early. Itās quite amazing, actually.
In āChrysalisā, there is another brief debate on the way the Federation has chosen to treat resequenced individuals:
Sisko: Doctor, I appreciate that you feel a connection to them because youāre genetically engineered yourself, but they have displayed a consistent disregard for the rules that the rest of society lives by.
Bashir: Maybe thatās because theyāre not allowed to live in society.
Sisko: We are not here to debate Federation policy toward the genetically enhanced. We are here to discuss what to do about these people now that theyāre aboard.
Bashir has thoughts about his personal experience:
Bashir: All these years Iāve had to hide the fact that my DNA had been resequenced. Iād listen to people talk about the genetically engineered, saying they were all misfits. I used to fantasise about meeting someone who was like me, who could live a normal life.
In Voyagerās āThe Fightā, Chakotay reveals that he received genetic treatment before birth. This is not presented as something that should be seen as controversial:
EMH: Chakotay has the genetic marker for a cognitive disorder. Sensory tremens. The primary symptoms are visual and auditory hallucinations.
Chakotay: My family doctor suppressed the gene before I was even born, so I never had to go through what the others did, like my grandfather.
āLineageā also delves into the medical ethics of genetic resequencing, as Torres wrestles with some complex emotions regarding her pregnancy. First, the Doctor identifies an issue that can be addressed with routine genetic modification:
EMH: Yes. Itās a girl. And aside from the deviated spine, sheās healthy.
Paris: Will she need surgery?
EMH: Fortunately, weāve advanced beyond that. Genetic modification is the treatment of choice.
However, Torres later requests some modifications that the Doctor is unwilling to perform:
EMH: Thereās no valid medical reason to do what youāre proposing.
Torres: I disagree.
EMH: You want to delete entire DNA sequences. The genes that create redundant organs, for example.
Torres brings her wishes to Captain Janeway, who refuses to order the Doctor to perform the procedure. Notably, Janeway does not cite Federation law, and discusses ethics instead:
Torres: I want you to order the Doctor to genetically alter my child.
Paris: Do you see what Iām dealing with here?
Janeway: What youāre asking for is ethically questionable. The Doctor has reservations. Your husband is against it.
Torres ends up tampering with the Doctorās program in an attempt to force him to do the procedure, and it does lead to him makng a medical case for it (albeit one based on falsified information):
EMH (after being tampered with): The genetic alterations youāve suggested are necessary.
Paris: On what grounds?
EMH: The clash I mentioned between Klingon and human metabolism? Itās more extensive than I realised.
Torres: How extensive?
EMH: Theoretically, it could lead to complete metabolic failure.
In āImperfectionā, Icheb devises a genetic resequencing technique that will allow him to regulate his Borg implants without a cortical node, which he donates to Seven of Nine.
Enterprise delves into the Eugenics Wars in a number of season four episodes. The series also introduces a new term to describe enhanced individuals: augment. Of course, this series predates the Federation, so all references to the law are referring to Earth law, specifically. from the context, I think itās possible that later Federation law are at least slightly more permissive.
In āBorderlandā, the merits of genetic engineering are discussed several times. First, Archer has an exchange with Arik Soong:
Archer: Why invest so much time and energy on things no one will ever use?
Soong: How can a supposedly intelligent species reject technology that would enhance ability, relieve suffering?
Archer: Genetic engineering has caused a lot of suffering.
Soong: So did splitting the atom, yet the first ships to colonise the solar system were nuclear-powered. But youāre not here to discuss that.
Later, Phlox reveals that genetic engineering is fairly routine amongst his own people. Despite this, he seems generally supportive of Earthās laws surrounding augmentation:
Soong: I didnāt realise you shared humanityās reactionary attitude toward this field of medicine.
Phlox: On the contrary, weāve used genetic engineering on Denobula for over two centuries, to generally positive effect.
Soong: But you donāt approve of what Iāve done.
Phlox: You tried to redesign your species. The first time that was attempted on Earth, the result was thirty million deaths.
Soong: We canāt let past mistakes hold us back.
Phlox: Itās your responsibility as a scientist to learn from past mistakes.
Soong: Well, what makes you think I havenāt?
Phlox: I can read.
Soong also tries to play to Archerās emotions:
Soong: Theyāre the future. Theyāre stronger, smarter, free from sickness, with life spans twice as long as our own. You, more than anyone, should appreciate what this means.
Archer: Why me?
Soong: Your father suffered from Clarkeās Disease. His final years were marked with extreme pain.
Archer: My father has nothing to do with this.
Soong: He didnāt need to suffer. Genetic engineering couldāve cured him. Those who want to suppress my Augments are the same ones who condemned your father to death. Turn the ship around, Captain. Go home. Leave them alone.
In āCold Station 12ā, it seems Soongās argument got to Archer, although it has not changed his resolve:
Phlox: You might be interested to know Smikeās become quite the student of Earth history. Heās been reading up on the Eugenics Wars.
Archer: I doubt Soong gave him the whole story.
Phlox: Iām quite familiar with the subject myself. Human intellect and human instinct were out of sync. So many people were killed.
Archer: The official number was thirty million. Some historians say it was closer to thirty five.
Phlox: I can understand why Earth banned genetic engineering.
Archer: What do you know about Clarkeās syndrome?
Phlox: Itās a degenerative brain disorder that afflicts humans.
Archer: My father died of it when I was twelve.
Phlox: Iām sorry.
Archer: He had frequent pain, hallucinations, he talked to people who werenāt there. Often couldnāt recognise me or my mother. The last two years of his lifeā¦
Phlox: And you were thinking if genetic engineering had been permitted-
Archer: Maybe Soong has a point.
Phlox: Iāve had time to examine his work more closely. Iām forced to admit some of it is extremely inventive. Heās really quite brilliant. Itās a shame such a man has to remain incarcerated.
Archer: He broke the law. Thatās why he was in prison. And thatās why Iām going to make sure he goes back. Denobula perfected genetic engineering a long time ago, but you never came close to destroying yourselves.
Phlox: Perhaps we were simply fortunate.
Archer: Or maybe your instincts had caught up with your intellect.
In āThe Augmentsā, we return to the notion that violent behaviour is inherent to augmented individuals (or, at least, these remnants from the Eugenics Wars):
Malik: Youāre manipulating its DNA.
Soong: These base-pairs sequences regulate the neurotransmitter levels in their brain. If I can modify them, aggression and violent behaviour will be removed.
Malik: Youāre changing its personality.
Soong: Iām correcting a defect in its genome. Genetic engineering was in its infancy when you were created. They werenāt able to repair all the mistakes.
Malik: Did you fix these mistakes in the rest of us?
Soong: I didnāt know how until recently.
Malik: What right do you have to tamper with their genome?
Soong: Trust me. I know what Iām doing.
Malik: You donāt know that this is a defect. Maybe this is the way our creators wanted us to be.
Later, Archer manages to quote words that Spock wonāt utter for decades, though it appears Spock had lifted that from someone else without attributing it properly:
Soong: What do you want me to say? That you were right about them, and I was wrong? Maybe things would have been different if Iād been there for them, if Starfleet hadnāt locked me away.
Archer: None of that would have mattered in the end. Itās in their nature. They were engineered to be this way. Superior ability breeds superior ambition. One of their creators wrote that. He was murdered by an Augment.
Finally, Discovery acknowledges the laws surrounding DNA resequencing in āChoose Your Painā:
Burnham: So far, we found one viable workaround. This hypospray contains Tardigrade DNA and replication catalysts that will initiate rapid horizontal gene transfer in a host. The interface process requires an evolved organism, a species with a highly functioning nervous system. And one that, like the Tardigrade, shares genetic information with mushrooms. The animal kingdom may have diverted from its fungal counterparts 600 million years ago, but Homo Sapiens still share over half of our DNA with them.
Saru: You want to use a human? Eugenics experiments are forbidden.
Burnham: I know. And thatās why we need more time.
Of course, Stamets ends up augmenting himself with Ripperās DNA, which the Federation tolerates out of necessity.
This concludes my historical summary of the Federationās history with genetic modification. Obviously, Strange New Worlds has delved further into this, and I welcome commentary that ties those more recent episodes to this history.
My primary takeaways from this summary are:
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The regulations surrounding genetic resequencing stem from Earth laws enacted following the Eugenics Wars. Itās possible that those Earth laws were stricter than the later Federation laws, as certain medical interventions appear to have not been permitted, while it seems that they may have been later.
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In the Federation, genetic manipulation is permitted when there is a medical need, and possibly to enable cross-species reproduction.
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Individuals who have received resequencing are prone to unintended side effects, which the Federation has had limited success in addressing.
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Individuals who have received resequencing have also discussed being disrciminated against, both legally in the sense of being barred from certain professions, as well as socially.
Another key takeaway from this that I hadnāt considered before:
Augments arenāt just banned from Starfleet. They canāt become doctors either. Speaking as a Jew my people know firsthand that one of the best ways to create an underclass is to restrict the occupations available to them. Are augments systematically kept out of skilled professions, denied the chance to better themselves and their fellow sapients? Very disturbing possiblity.
The conversations in āStatistical Probabilitiesā definitely suggest the restrictions extend beyond Starfleet and medicine.
Itās also likely that the stigma attached to being augmented could prevent someone from being hired into certain positions, even if there are no formal rules against it.
I want to push back on the conversation between Jack and Bashir in āStatistical Probabilitiesā a little bit given additional context from Strange New Worlds āAd Astra per Aspera.ā I donāt think itās fair to say that all augments are treated the same way. Itās unlikely I think, that even if Bashir were to have not lied to get into Starfleet he would have been prevented either by law or by policy of doing anything even remotely scientific - including medicine or other gene research.
However, I donāt think we can take Jack at his word that he would have been institutionalized in the same manner. If we believe that the genetically modified people we see from the Institute in Deep Space Nine werenāt driven mad by their perceived incarceration then we have to believe that side effects of the genetic modification process caused unexpected neurological abnormalities and personality disorders that we see typified by that group.
Dal, for instance, in Prodigy does not fear institutionalization in the Federation, but rather he fears he wonāt be let into Starfleet. Presumably he may also be precluded from other career choices that heās just not interested in, but I donāt think itās fair to say that being an augment is criminal as much as it is laws have created a system whereby modified people, especially modified humans, are treated as second class citizens. This might even extend to people who have DNA sequencing done for legitimate medical reasons like Chakotay. I like to imagine Chakotay and Una and Bashir having similar experiences even though their circumstances were unique. The human willingness to look past reason and into bigotry doesnāt go away, but itās focused on the genetically modified.
And it takes decades, centuries even, for the laws to change even a little bit and even longer for the people to accept those changes.
Itās unlikely I think, that even if Bashir were to have not lied to get into Starfleet he would have been prevented either by law or by policy of doing anything even remotely scientific - including medicine or other gene research.
Well, that specific bit comes from āDoctor Bashir, I Presume,ā not āStatistical Probabilities,ā and heās talking to OāBrien, so I think we can assume heās not exaggeratingā¦however, OāBrienās response is interesting when you take Strange New Worlds into consideration:
Bashir: Starfleet Medical wonāt see it that way. DNA resequencing for any reason other than repairing serious birth defects is illegal. Any genetically enhanced human being is barred from serving in Starfleet or practising medicine.
OāBrien: I donāt [think] thereās been a case dealing with any of this in a hundred years. You canāt be sure how theyāll react.
So Bashir could be right, in that heās interpreting the laws as written, but you could also be right, in that itās possible no case has gone before the courts in quite some time, perhaps even since Unaās.
Whoa! Good catch. That timeline almost lines up exactly and itās very possible that OāBrien was referring to Una. It could also be that OāBrien is indicating that sentiments have maybe changed somewhat in 100 years, something that we are lead to expect from SNW. And indeed Bashir is allowed to stay in Starfleet without even having to find a technical loophole and Richardās punishment is considered harsh at 2 years. Given the future utopia that weāre dealing with and the historical significance of the crime I think what weāre seeing is that no one really does this anymore and so itās not really an issue.
I really hate that Prodigy was unrewened because a courtroom episode of Prodigy where Dal gets the right to serve in Starfleet and the Starfleet ban on genetic augments is lifted would be a pretty cool.
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